Many contemporary American women covet an unrealistically thin body build for themselves (Lamb, Jackson, Cassidy, & Priest, 1993; Mallick, Whipple, & Huerta, 1987; Silberstein, Striegel-Moore, Timko, & Rodin, 1988; Spillman & Everington, 1989), a phenomenon that could be detrimental to their emotional and physical health. The rising significance of the thin ideal is apparent from the changing perceptions of the ectomorphic body type. In the fifty years since Sheldon and Stevens (1942) conducted their somatotype research, the negative characteristics associated with the thin, or ectomorphic, body build have dwindled. In the early 1940s, Sheldon and Stevens found that ectomorphic individuals were perceived negatively by others as nervous, submissive, and socially withdrawn. By the late 1980s, however, this perception had changed. Compared to individuals with endomorphic and mesomorphic body types, ectomorphic individuals were rated most positively and considered to be the most sexually appealing (Spillman & Everington, 1989).
The emergence of the slender body type as a beauty standard for women is especially salient in the mass media, and several researchers have demonstrated how the female body depicted in the media has become increasingly thin (Garner, Garfinkel, Schwartz, & Thompson, 1980; Ogletree, Williams, Raffeld, Mason, & Fricke, 1990; Silverstein, Perdue, Peterson, & Kelly, 1986; Wiseman, Gray, Mosimann, & Ahrens, 1992). Assessing the height, weight, and body measurements of Playboy centerfolds and of Miss America Pageant contestants from 1960 to 1979, Garner et al. (1980) found that the percent of average weight of the models declined significantly.(1) For example, in 1960, the average weight of Playboy models was 91% of the population mean. By 1978, mean weight of the models has dropped to 84% of the population mean. A similar trend was apparent among the Miss America Pageant contestants: Prior to 1970, mean weight of the contestants was approximately 88% of the population norm. Following 1970, mean weight of the contestants had decreased to 85% of the population norm.(2)
Garner and colleagues also noted a trend toward noncurvaceousness from 1960 to 1979. The bust and hip measurements of Playboy models decreased and their waist measurements increased significantly. These findings are consistent with those reported by Silverstein, Perdue, Peterson, and Kelly (1986) who examined the curvaceousness of models appearing in Vogue and Ladies Home Journal from 1901 to 1981 and of popular movie actresses from 1941 to 1979. The investigators found that among the models appearing in Ladies Home Journal and Vogue, the bust-to-waist ratio dropped significantly. Additionally, the average bust-to-waist ratio of actresses from the 1960s and 1970s was significantly smaller than that of actresses from the 1940s and 1950s. Similar results were reported by Morris, Cooper, and Cooper (1989) in their study of British fashion models.
Taken riotwearether, the findings of Garner and colleagues and of Silverstein and colleagues show that from the turn of the century throughout the 1970s, the standard of physical attractiveness for women presented in the mass media became much thinner and less curvaceous. These findings were replicated in a recent update of the Garner et al. (1980) research. Using the same procedures employed in the Garner study, Wiseman et al. (1992) found that during the period from 1979 to 1988, Miss America contestants continued to decrease in body size and Playboy models maintained their already low body sizes. As did previous researchers, Wiseman et al. (1992) found that curvaceousness (i.e., hip measurements) continued to decline among Miss America contestants.
One finding reported in the Wiseman et al. (1992) study has serious implications for women's well-being. During the period from 1979 to 1988, 69% of Playboy models and 60% of Miss America contestants weighed 15% or more below the expected weight for their age and height category. The researchers note that according to the DSM III-R, maintaining body weight of 15% below one's expected weight is a criterion for anorexia nervosa. Other researchers have also noted the prevalence of disordered eating among fashion models (e.g., Brenner & Cunningham, 1992) and the severe health risks associated with achieving a very thin body type. Women whose body fat falls below 22% are much more susceptible to infertility, amenorrhea, ovarian and endometrial cancer, and osteoporosis (Seid, 1989). These findings suggest that the slim beauty ideal presented in the media may be unhealthy for women.
Given the messages aimed at women through the mass media, it is not surprising that many American women desire to be thin and that women typically feel dissatisfied with their bodies. Women generally are less satisfied with their bodies than are men (Altabe & Thompson, 1993; Brenner & Cunningham, 1992; Davis & Cowles, 1991; Koff, Rierdan, & Stubbs, 1990; Mintz & Betz, 1986). Even women who can be classified as being within or slightly below the normal weight range for their height often perceive themselves as being overweight and are dissatisfied with their bodies. Body image dissatisfaction is a crucial area of investigation because of its relationship to low self-esteem (Koff, Rierdan, & Stubbs, 1990) and to depression (Rierdan, Koff & Stubbs, 1989).
One question raised by these studies concerns the nature of the relationship between media depictions of females and women's perception of their own bodies. An implicit assumption underlying previous research is that the portrayal of the thin body ideal and the focus on dieting and exercise cause women to become dissatisfied with their own bodies and to prefer the thin body type. Although previous researchers (i.e., Spillman & Everington, 1989) have implied that the media have changed our perceptions of the female body, few studies have actually tested this hypothesis empirically. Further research is needed that examines whether exposure to media depictions of the thin female body does influence women's body image satisfaction.
Evidence that perceptions of their own bodies may be affected by media portrayals of women has been provided by Irving (1990) who investigated the impact of exposure to slides of thin, average, and oversize models on the self-evaluations of 162 college women exhibiting varying levels of self-reported bulimic symptoms. Irving found that exposure to thin models was related to lower self-evaluations, regardless of the level of bulimic symptoms. Additional research is needed to determine whether the thin models featured in popular women's magazines would have a similar effect on women's self-perceptions.
The aim of the present investigation was to explore whether the depictions of women in magazines do, in fact, affect women's perceptions of their own bodies. Specifically, the impact of exposure to fashion magazines on women's body image satisfaction was investigated. Consistent with previous research, we hypothesized that viewing fashion magazines would lead to lower levels of body image satisfaction among college women. Because of the small nonrepresentative sample, the data are offered to stimulate further investigation of the effects of the mass media on females' development.
METHOD
Subjects
Participants were 49 undergraduate females enrolled in an introductory psychology course at a New England women's college. Participants were randomly assigned to two experimental conditions: half (n = 24) were assigned to the fashion magazine group, and the remaining half (n = 25) were assigned to the news magazine group. Preliminary analyses revealed no significant differences in the mean height, weight, or age of the two groups of participants. Mean weight for the sample was 129.43 pounds and ranged from 92 to 160 pounds. Mean height was 64.98 inches and ranged from 60 to 71 inches. Mean age for the sample was 18.63 years and ranged from 17 to 21 years.
Materials
Magazines. Eight magazines were used as stimulus materials. Each magazine was selected on the basis of its popularity and availability. Four magazines that had reputations for exhibiting the thin fashion ideal among women were chosen: Vogue (November, 1991), Bazaar (October, 1991), Elle (November, 1991), and Allure (November, 1991). The four news magazines used in the control condition included Time (November 4, 1991), Newsweek (October 28, 1991), U.S. News & World Report (October 28, 1991), and Business Week (November 4, 1991).(3)
